History of the Computer - Cache Memory Part 1 of 2

History of the Computer - Cache Memory Part 1 of 2

We looked at the early digital computer memory, see History of the computer - Core Memory, and mentioned that the present standard RAM (Random Access Memory) is chip memory. This conforms with the commonly quoted application of Moore's Law (Gordon Moore was one of the founders of Intel). It states that component density on integrated circuits, which can be paraphrased as performance per unit cost, doubles every 18 months. Early core memory had cycle times in microseconds, today we are talking in nanoseconds.

You may be familiar with the term cache, as applied to PCs. It is one of the performance features mentioned when talking about the latest CPU, or Hard Disk. You can have L1 or L2 cache on the processor, and disk cache of various sizes. Some programs have cache too, also known as buffer, for example, when writing data to a CD burner. Early CD burner programs had 'overruns'. The end result of these was a good supply of coasters!

Mainframe systems have used cache for many years. The concept became popular in the 1970s as a way of speeding up memory access time. This was the time when core memory was being phased out and being replaced with integrated circuits, or chips. Although the chips were much more efficient in terms of physical space, they had other problems of reliability and heat generation. Chips of a certain design were faster, hotter and more expensive than chips of another design, which were cheaper, but slower. Speed has always been one of the most important factors in computer sales, and design engineers have always been on the lookout for ways to improve performance.

The concept of cache memory is based on the fact that a computer is inherently a sequential processing machine. Of course one of the big advantages of the computer program is that it can 'branch' or 'jump' out of sequence - subject of another article in this series. However, there are still enough times when one instruction follows another to make a buffer or cache a useful addition to the computer.

The basic idea of cache is to predict what data is required from memory to be processed in the CPU. Consider a program, which is made up of a series instructions, each one being stored in a location in memory, say from address 100 upwards. The instruction at location 100 is read out of memory and executed by the CPU, then the next instruction is read from location 101 and executed, then 102, 103 etc.

If the memory in question is core memory, it will take maybe 1 microsecond to read an instruction. If the processor takes, say 100 nanoseconds to execute the instruction, it then has to wait 900 nanoseconds for the next instruction (1 microsecond = 1000 nanoseconds). The effective repeat speed of the CPU is 1 microsecond.. (Times and speeds quoted are typical, but do not refer to any specific hardware, merely give an illustration of the principles involved).

Budget and Financial Management

Budget and Financial Management

There are three main phases to the local government budget process:

1. Budget Preparation - Budget guidelines are established based on the annual plan and goals

2. Budget Adoption: Budgets are adopted by the government

3. Budget Execution: Implementation of the budget consistent with nationally established accounting procedures and policy with oversight mechanisms to ensure funds are properly spent.

Guidelines established by the Government Finance Officers Association (GFOA) steer the local government budget process. These guidelines include:

1. Establish Broad Goals to Guide Government Decision Making - Strategic Planning Process

2. Develop Approaches to Achieve Goals- Objectives and Activities to Achieve

3. Develop a Budget Consistent with Approaches to Achieve Goals

4. Evaluate Performance and Make Adjustments

There is no question that these guidelines create a sound finance and budget process. But, as is evidenced by the current financial state of most local governments, additional standards are required to ensure the long-term fiscal sustainability of a community.

Persisting with processes that create annual budgets based on past budgets with incremental changes, does not take into account the volatility of the economic environment in which we are operating. Nor does it provide for future stability.

While Zero Based Budgeting is an old tool; when used correctly it provides a process for budgeting, which promotes a more thorough operation analysis which can be based on an analysis of current and future variables affecting revenue and anticipating outcomes for more than a single budget year. In particular, costs associated with personnel and benefits, the largest percentage of most government budgets, must be reviewed and analyzed based on long-term liabilities. Additionally, long-term planning for infrastructure maintenance should have been based on a ten to twenty year horizon, not the traditional five-year planning scenario. This process requires more intense and focused planning, including a realistic environmental scan that provides a thorough understanding of the impact of growth and future service needs, coupled with changing economic conditions and other factors that impact service delivery.

To be successful, the budget process must be a fluid process, revenue projection and expenditure analysis must be ongoing and not a once a year static process. Adopting a process similar to what successful companies utilize requires looking at governmental management in a different way than we have in years past. In the private sector, successful companies routinely incorporate "what if scenarios" or projected outcomes which may be triggered by certain events and constantly monitor those events and the potential impact on the budget. In local government, we should be examining potential "trigger events" such as weather phenomenon and its potential impact, economic or community issues and other variables including political shifts, which may affect not only the stability of resources, but the services required.

The economic, political and cultural components of our communities are constantly changing. Therefore, the way we budget and plan for services must be more inclusive and consider both the current and long-term impact of these variables . Efficient and effective local government management requires long-term sustainable solutions not just annual budget 'quick fixes'.

To accomplish this goal,

Managers must learn to be adept at

Determining when to contract services and when to add the necessary overhead to provide direct services with City employees.

Establishing fund reserves for future growth and needs for capital planning and infrastructure on a long-term basis.

Managing growth and not letting the growth drive service demands.

Knowing how and when to structure the city organization and keep staff focused on the larger picture-the vision of the elected body and its citizenry.

Recognizing that government is not always the answer to a service delivery problem

Thus, managers must learn to create alternative solutions to service delivery by asking different questions including:

What are the services we provide? What services should we provide? What is the true (total) cost of that service-dollars, people, infrastructure, overhead etc.? Is there a way to provide this service more cost effectively and efficiently?

Why do we provide this service? Does it really meet a current need? Do our citizens really want this service? Does it really promote and protect health safety and welfare of our citizens? In other words is it really a CORE services that is a necessity that should be funded by local government? If so,

Who should provide this service? -County? City? Private? Can we give up control / turf to improve the service or make its delivery more efficient by finding a better provider (s)?

How should the service be provided? Are there different types of service delivery that might work better? Is there a new technology which can provide the services more cost effectively in the long run?

In summary, local government finance and budget management is more than a standardized set of guidelines and processes; it can and must be innovative and visionary, seeking long-term fiscal sustainability.

Financial Skills - How to Budget & Balance Accounts

Financial Skills - How to Budget & Balance Accounts

I was surprised when I asked parents to tell me the life skills that they wanted their kids knew, and there was a resounding request for a few topics:

• How to open a bank account
• How to budget & balance accounts
• How to write checks and pay bills
• And how to start saving for retirement

It seems some of the things we take for granted are, as a result, missing from what we teach kids.

In the last article, we focused on opening a bank account. This article is the second article in the four-part series and will look at how to teach kids to budget and balance their accounts.

Budgeting

It's not shock that budgeting can be boring and tedious. I've personally never been excited to sit down and create my budgets, but it's something that creates wealth and pays off down the road.

So how do you get kids excited about it? How can you add a little glamor to something so dull and boring? Easy - make it a game with payoffs.

Firstly, it's important to know how to create a budget, then to adhere to the budget.

Creating a Budget

You may have your own way to create a budget, and that's fine. In my experience, the easiest way to make a budget is as follows:

On a piece of paper, draw a line down the middle:

1. Spending Budget Calculate your average monthly gross income and put that at the top of the page, then multiply it by.80 (for example, if you earned $ 1,000, you would end up with $ 800)
2. Fixed Expenses Write down all of your FIXED expense categories (ie phone bill, insurance, mortgage etc ...) and put them in one column on the left side of the page
3. Variable Expenses Next write in the variable expense categories (ie food, gas, leisure, etc ...) and put them in another column on the right side of the page
4. Fill in all of your expenses
5. Net Budget after Fixed Expenses - Subtract fixed expenses from your spending budget, if it's a positive number, you do not need to change anything If it's zero or a negative number, you should look for expenses that you can cut or lower
6. Budget variable expenses - Using your Net budget after fixed expenses, determine what you can spend on variable expenses without overspending each month
7. Set a budget for each variable expense so you know what you can spend on each category in a given month

Making it Fun

OK, now that you have a budget outline, it's time to get the kids excited.

I know what you're thinking: "My kids will never be excited for this."

They will if you give them some prizes or payoffs. Here's how:

First, tell them what a budget is and show them the paper. Next, tell them that you're going to do a contest (if you have more than one kid, this works even better).

Contest 1: Anticipating Spending

The first contest is to see how close they can budget their money to reach a break-even or $ 0 over the course of a month. In other words, the goal is to predict your spending as close to the penny as possible.

If you have more than one kid person that gets the closest to break-even without going negative wins a prize. With just one kid, tell them that they get $ 5 or $ 10 if they reach break-even, and every penny they are off, you deduct 10¼

Contest 2 - Saving After Spending

The second contest is to see how well they can budget their money over the next 30 days. If they can save money, tell them you will give them whatever they save. That means if they save $ 5, you'll give them another $ 5 (just like companies matching a person's 401K contribution).

If you have more than one kid, tell them who ever is able to save the most will win and get a special prize. You will obviously choose the prize since you know your kids best.

Coming Soon

In the next article, we'll discuss how to write checks and pay bills. You will also learn how to combine check-writing with these contests to simulate the real world of budgeting for your kids.

Newspapers Vs Internet News

Newspapers Vs Internet News

Once, it was difficult to imagine morning without a newspaper. We wake up, drink a cup of coffee and read newspapers in order to find latest news in the country and around the world. Today the world has changed. Every hour there is news, every minute something happens. In order to get the latest news, just go to the internet. And if you prefer, you can even get updates (the results of football games, for example), directly to the mobile phone. And this, of course, without any mention of television news channels, which broadcast 24 hours a day. So who really needs the newspapers and there is still the future of this industry?

First of all, many people read newspapers from the habit. Indeed, why, to change anything? Why switch on a computer or TV, if tomorrow morning we will find a newspaper at the door. And if there has been something abnormal sooner, we will probably hear about it on TV. The feeling of reading the newspaper like reading books, and it is rooted in many people. You can read during meals, in bed before sleep, or even in the bathroom. You can certainly use the laptop in these places, but it is far less convenient.

Major newspapers around the world have already noticed this problem a long time. They understand that the news on the Internet is the future. It should also join this trend and this will help in particular to promote the newspaper. Who does not do so, will be left behind. Creating new and popular site with interesting material is not detrimental to the newspaper, but also expands the sources of funding. Many of those who advertise on the Internet are not always advertised in the newspapers. Thus, a circle, in which newspaper promotes the website and the website, brings new readers to the newspaper. Of course, the web site which belongs to well-known newspaper has an excellent starting point on the Internet.

Statistics around the world shows that the number of readers of newspapers is falling every year, and this is very reasonable. The younger generation does not have a natural attraction to the paper, newspapers and books and they are more drawn to the buttons and screens. Therefore, it is clear that slowly, most of the budget of papers will move on to the Internet. During this transition period, they must retain its best reporters, or their level falls, and they will lose many readers.

Personally, I and my family have long ceased to read newspapers, and it happened as soon as I realized that all the news that I read there, I already knew from websites or TV. If the newspaper does not give new information, so why buy it and spend precious time. Online news sites saves time, allows you to filter content, and make information retrieval comfortable and efficient. I like sites that collect the latest news from different sources. This way you can get convenient and most reliable objective information.

A Practical Guide to Help Choose a Mobile App Development Agency

A Practical Guide to Help Choose a Mobile App Development Agency

In the last couple of decades, we have seen how mobile devices have gone viral. With the technology to support high speed internet access, mobiles have made a global population that is constantly at a tap's reach to any information. Businesses too have seen the benefits of having a mobile workforce which can co-ordinate very easily between the office and the field work. However, each business is different and hence has its own particular needs of computing applications. For example, a business dealing with warehousing would require a totally different type of app in contrast to a business that services and repairs household electronics. To make the best use of everyone's time, a professional business has to see this fact and consider getting customized mobile apps developed. Android applications development has ascended very rapidly since its introduction due to the popularity and as such, you should not find it a task to find a good agency of developers who can build apps that suit your exact needs. The following article, discusses some of the things that should be of use to anyone looking to hire such an agency.

Check Their Experience in App Development

The mobile apps field is a rather new one which didn't quite exist at all a couple of decades ago. This however, doesn't mean that we are only left to deal with newbie developers. Look for agencies headed by people who have extensive experience in working with apps and their development. A HTML5 developer, for example, who has been in the coding and development industry for a while would have gathered all the skills and knowledge required to address any kind of requirement.

Ask to See Previous Work

This is quite an effective way to decide whether the said agency is the one that gets our project or not. A HTML5 developer without any applications to show might not be the best choice as we are talking about apps for our business. When checking out such sample work, make sure to note your own experience of using it. Although the content is of the utmost importance, the form or design of the app is also important. Agencies that have been building apps for the mobile platform and know what they're doing will never hesitate to show you their work as they understand that it makes it easier for both the parties.

Find Out About your Point of Contact

Proper communication during the development process is crucial to the success of any app. You need to stay in touch with the development team regarding your requirements of functionality as well as the design. If, for example, you would like to get an app built for android, it is always good if your point of contact is the project manager for the android applications development team. Make sure that you speak to the same person from the time of consideration and on throughout the whole process as this will make it easier to co-ordinate.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative Medicine

Advantages and Disadvantages of Alternative Medicine

There are reasons why people chose alternative medicine and reasons why they avoid it, preferring conventional medicine. Alternative medicine is safer than standard health treatments and usually works. It's true that it can not be used in certain conditions like car accidents or other severe emergencies, but that as it may, there are enough situations in which alternative medicine is recommended. When it comes to emotional and spiritual needs, non-conventional medicine may come up with the solution. Furthermore, it's better for preventing illnesses than standard medicine. More and more doctors nowdays agree upon the benefits of alternative medicine and also even advise their clients to choose the best natural treatment for them.

One of the advantages of alternative medicine is that it encompasses a broad range of therapies, treatments and products, thus the search for obtaining positive results does not flow on a narrow path at all.
A pretty important disadvantage states the idea that, even though the expenses of using acupuncture or chiropractic are sometimes covered by health insurances, the major of alternative treatments are not reimbursed.

There are certain risks that come along with the usage of natural remedies. Despite the use of herbs through the years and even ancient times, not all of them have been studied regarding their safety and efficiency. There are issues relating to their purity and their possible interaction with other substances related to conventional therapies. The majority of information regarding herbs has been perpetuated through history and with the help of tradition. Many people assume that herbal medicines are better than synthetic drugs simply because, well, they are natural and not synthetic, therefore present no risk. But they are not risk free; they can do more harm than good if taken without having the details of their effects over the body.

People may abuse of natural medicines the same way as they do it in the case of synthetic drugs. They have the misconception that if unconventional medicine consists of herbal products which are natural, then there is no harm done if they triple the dosage or more. This is totally wrong and can have serious consequences. Take vitamins for example. They are just vitamins, right? They can not possibly do any damage inside the body. But they do. Vitamin overdosing or vitamin toxicity can lead to unpleasant effects depending on the vitamin that has been taken one too many times. Vitamin A over dosage can cause liver problems, osteoporosis, hair loss and other dangerous effects and hypervitaminosis D leads to dehydration, vomiting, anorexia and even kidney stones.

An advantage of using herbal remedies concerns the effectiveness related with chronic health issues that do not respond well or even at all to traditional medicines. If long term medication is needed, then herbs are pretty much safer than conventional drugs. The alternative medicine industry takes advantage of this and keeps evolving and developing due to the constant need for natural remedies.

Another advantage is the low cost of herbal products compared to synthetic drugs which are highly priced for the simple reason that researching and testing the products is expensive. Furthermore, herbal products can be bought without a prescription and are easy to procure. The availability of natural remedies is outstanding; chamomile for example can be easily picked out from a nearby field.

The advantages of using herbal medicines are numerous, but so are the disadvantages. The best idea would be to consider modern medicine according to the severity of the illness, to consult a physician upon the proper medication and dosage and if you do choose the alternative medicine, try to gather enough information on both kinds of treatments, natural or synthetic , so you may reassure yourself that you took the right decision to balance your health situation.

The Google Nexus 9, The First Tablet With Android Lollipop 5.0

The Google Nexus 9, The First Tablet With Android Lollipop 5.0

The Google Nexus 9, the first tablet with Android Lollipop 5.0, is, without a shred of doubt, one of the best tablets of 2014/15. Its features such as the 8.9 inch screen, an HD display, a premium build and the latest version of android deservedly land it at the same level with top-class devices such as the Fire HDX 8.9 and Apple iPad Air2. Yes, it might not exactly be the winner if compared to these other adversaries, but, giving credit where it's due, Google Nexus 9 focuses on the nuts and bolts, and that makes it outstanding.

Most premium tablets of today come with 3D cameras, item recognition software and fingerprint sensors. Surprisingly, though, the new Nexus tablet does not settle on those features but instead concentrates on packing the best mobile processor you can find in the market and debuting the Android 5.0 Lollipop operating system.

Design

Like the 7-inch and 10-inch Nexus devices, this model is pleasantly comfortable and has a minority aesthetic. The device, manufactured by HTC, has a thin, streamlined body complete with quality construction. It is available in black, gold and white and is round-cornered. With the metal frame that wraps around its edges, there is a wide enough platform for fingers to rest on. The smooth vertices comfortably fit in your palms while holding and the glossy back surface offers a good feel for the fingertips.

Performance

The Google nexus 9's cutting edge Nvidia Tegra K1 Denver chip is superfast ready to perform any task its bought upon. It's CPU, with the first 64 bit chip strengthened by a 64 bit operating system, offers performance on par with the best chips out there. Using the OS is smooth and switching among apps is really quick such that you would hardly notice it happened. One most eye-catching thing about it is that the number of apps open does not affect its speed. Can you believe you can have twenty apps running and the device does not hang?

Internet

The device has a solid Wi-Fi connectivity, something that makes browsing the internet superfast. Web pages appear in micro-seconds, as soon as your finger leaves the screen. It downloads apps at a very fast rate and this makes it only second, if not equal, to iPad Air 2.

Who it's meant for

Judging from the features that have been widely concentrated on by HTC and Google, the Google Nexus 9 is best suited for researchers and surfers. Gamers are also considered here as the device can launch big games quickly and graphics are incomparably smooth and sharp.